Does Religious Discrimination Really Exist in Today’s America?

GB541-Unit 6 Research Paper Does Religious Discrimination Re ein truth last(predicate)y Exist in instantlys America? Kaplan University Profession Steven Cates Introduction There is so much controversy when discussing incompatible ghostly beliefs. Everyone has a different belief system, and who is to say which is in force(p) or wrong. Accepting these differences and avoiding design against those with different beliefs is the end result we argon looking to achieve as Ameri apprises. Unfortunately there are a helping of opinions on what spiritual beliefs are acceptable and what phantasmal beliefs are unacceptable.The ultimate goal is for everyone to accept that their ghostlike beliefs are not right for everybody. Discrimination is a bias or prejudice resulting in denial of opportunity, or unfair sermon regarding selection, promotion, or transfer. Religious discrimination involves treating a person (an individual(a) or employee) negatively because of that persons spiritual vie ws. The civic Rights Act of 1866 regulates the actions of all individuals or entities when entering into a contract to employ fewone else. Title VI of this act prohibits discrimination based on race, color, piety, gender, or national origin.Does Religious Discrimination Really Exist in Todays America? Yes, religious discrimination still does exist today in America. The United States of America has always been proud of the fact that we are a free country. Free to recital whatever religious beliefs or not practice any religious beliefs that we want. This freedom has not only allowed citizens to openly practice their beliefs, it allows them to do so without judgment from others. One example we can look at is a major tragedy in America such as the terrorist attack of 9/11. afterwards this horrific tragedy, there was an adverse reaction to Muslims.Americans who were of the same ancestry were treated differently because of the aftershock of that days events. In this case, the primary reason for the unfair treatment was mainly collectable to fear and lack of knowledge about the culture and Muslim religion. There are people who have religious beliefs, and there are those who do not believe in religion. Approximately 78% of Americans are affiliated with Christianity as their religion. Christianity is the most popular of all religions listed in the article, Religious salmagundi and Discrimination in the United States.About 16% of Americans are uncertain as to what if any religious affiliation they belong to. Religion is very controversial to acquire with in different countries, let alone bringing them all together in the same state, city, or neighborhood Personal opinions can lead to some form of religious discrimination. The number of religious discrimination charges filed with the EEOC has more(prenominal) than doubled from 1992 to 2007. Between the years of 1997 and 2000, religious based charges filed with the EEOC represents only about three percentage of a ll filings.Between the years of 2001 and 2005 that percentage of charges filed increased to four percent, and increased to five percent between the years of 2006 to 2009. Although it is important for the employer to keep back their employees religious beliefs, a company cannot subject other employees to unsafe conditions. If the amount of clothing worn in a manufacturing environment could get caught in machinery, it would be poisonous to the company to allow their employee to wear clothing that is unsafe.It is the employers responsibility to provide a safe work environment for all employees, which should be their first anteriority then they can sustain their employees religious beliefs. Ultimately a company is not required to accommodate religious beliefs if it will cause excessive hardship on the business. An example of an employee cause code that would cause un delinquent hardship on the employer would be the case of McCarter v. Harris County a feminine employee was hired a nd conscious of the jog code of navy blue draws and button down shirt.After the female employee converted to the Pentecostal church, she approached her employer about her inability to wear mens clothing due to her new faith and her supervisory program agreed to accommodate her request to wear a tapered skirt instead. The supervisor then delegate tasks like climbing a ladder to other employees who were dressed more suitably for the task. As cadence went on the supervisor retired and a new supervisor was not as accommodating to the female employees religious beliefs, so the female employee was instructed to return to the required dress code, and that they would no longer reassign tasks due to her attire.The female employee did not return to the pant dress code and later tripped and fell from the ladder. The supervisor gave the female a written notice that she was to return to the pant dress code, or she could contact Human Resources to see about a transfer to a different position t hat did not require the pant dress code. The female employee did not return to work due to her inability to accommodate the dress code requirements that conflicted with her faith and her lack of experience for other positions offered at the time of the incident the female was terminated for refusing to come back to work.In this case the employer produced sufficient proof that they did make reasonable accommodations to support the employees religious requirements, but the employees attire was causing wild hardship on the company. The court found in favor of the employer, stating that the employer make every attempt to accommodate the employee, but their dress code would in fact cause undue hardship on the company and other employees who had to pick up the responsibilities that the female could not accomplish due to her apparel.Had the employer acted differently in this scenario, the employee could have won the lawsuit. For instance if the employer had not given the employee an oppor tunity to apply for different positions within the company, or not made attempts to accommodate the employees religious beliefs and made rude comments to the employee about her religion causing a stressful work environment for her could have caused the courts to rule in favor of the employee.In this scenario, the employer made attempts to accommodate the employees beliefs, but her attire not only put a heavier workload on her co-workers, it also caused her to have an accident within the workplace. This is considered an undue hardship on the employer by accommodating their employees religious beliefs. Abercrombie & Fitch has had a few experiences with discrimination claims. One woman claimed that she was discriminated against because she could not wear her hijab, and Abercrombie state it was against their look policy because the woman would not be wearing clothing consistent with their brands.Abercrombie and Fitch was sued in 2004 by the EEOC for allegedly violating Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, because their hiring and recruiting practices excluded minorities and women by assuming a restrictive marketing image, and other policies that limited minority and female employment. An employer like Abercrombie and Fitch are required to accommodate religious practices unless it causes undue hardship on the employer. In the article Religious Diversity and Discrimination in the United States, they list 20 different categories of religious affiliations within a survey.There were 4,151 religious discrimination cares filed in 2011. If an individual experiences religious discrimination in the workplace, they are advised to file a formal charge to the EEOC, they will then be advised to consult an attorney to determine the legal steps to take for compensation from their aggressor. If the courts find the company guilty of religious discrimination they will require corrective action to be interpreted to ensure that this does not happen again and the company will be consistent to pay restitution to the employees involved in the lawsuit.The website www. franczek. com discussed a couple cases pertaining to religious discrimination against police officers. Should an officer be required to cut his fuzz if it is against his religion? In this particular case the question is not if the officer should cut his tomentum cerebri or not, but was the officer treated unfair by his employer? In this case, the police department is in the wrong for making derogatory comments about the officer, and they forced the officer to participate in a psychiatric evaluation.In the sulfur case, the officer felt that the departments personal grooming policy was against his religious beliefs and the department give him temporary permission to follow his religious beliefs of memory a trimmed beard and to wear a yarmulke when inside. The officer did agree to shave his beard, but continued to wear his yarmulke indoors. The officer filed a motion against the department a nd was partially found in his favor since the city grants approval to medical reasons for facial hair.If the department will accept facial hair for medical reasons, they must also make the same accommodations for religious reasons. An employee cannot be fired just for requesting that their employer accommodate their religious beliefs. In North Carolina a female front desk clerk was fired for asking if the hotel would switch her account to accommodate her observance of Sabbath. The front desk clerks religion was Seventh Day Adventist, and her schedule conflicted with her ability to observe Sabbath, which was observed from sundown on Friday to sundown on Saturday.The EEOC found that the hotel was in violation of Title VII. In this instance the employee could have been granted an alternative schedule to accommodate her religious beliefs unless the accommodations cause undue hardship on the hotel. The courts did not find that any undue hardships would have been qualified the hotels act ions hence the hotel would be required to settle with the employee for wrongful termination under the grounds of religious discrimination. If an employee is terminated due to their eligious beliefs they can file a formal complaint with the EEOC, and seek legal counsel to discuss the steps necessary to gain compensation for the damages caused by this discrimination. If the employer did not make attempts to accommodate the individuals religious beliefs in the workplace they are guilty of religious discrimination. If the individual is subjected to a hostile work environment due to slander towards their religion, jokes about religious beliefs, or rude comments about an individual because of their faith the company is guilty of religious discrimination. An employer cannot claim what is and is not a valid faith.There is no stipulation on when an employee adopts their religious beliefs, they could have worked for a company for fifteen years and convert from Christianity to Buddhism, and t here is nothing that their employer can do about it. The employer also cannot determine what permit religious practices are acceptable and what practices are unacceptable. An employer has to prove that they have made attempts to accommodate religious beliefs in the workplace but the accommodations caused undue hardships to the company in order for the employer to take actions towards an employee who is claiming religious discrimination.These undue hardships would have to prove that the employer had made attempts to accommodate the employee, but the company was suffering and could not maintain the steps taken to support their employees faith. Sometime these undue hardships could be safety hazards, which could put the employee or other employees in danger of injury. Unsafe working conditions would be grounds for the employer to claim undue hardship, and then the company would not need to accommodate the employees faith practices.There are a few courses of action that can be taken to limit religious discrimination. One of the weaker courses of action is exercising tolerance of other peoples religious beliefs and allowing them to express their beliefs without forcing the beliefs of any individuals religious faith. This course of action is not always acceptable in many situations. Another course of action is to remind Americans that we accept all people, no matter what religion they practice. We need to express a no tolerance policy for discrimination for everyone.Habitual offenders of religious discrimination will require more stringent penalties than most. This course of action would have to be handled in court and possibly with fines and action plans mandated by the court system. These courses of action are necessary to name a boundary that is set to define right and wrong ways to handle religious beliefs and discrimination. Avoiding religious discrimination breathing out forward will be complicated for all parties. The best way to avoid religious discriminat ion is to educate.Educating citizens about the importance of religious freedoms and differences in cultures is necessary to avoid discrimination going forward. I firmly believe that educating people is the best way to handle eliminating religious discrimination. People tend to resist what they do not understand, which tends to stimulate discrimination. This is why I feel that education of what we do not understand is important, so that we can rise above discrimination. Conclusion Religious discrimination is still very much a problem in the United States. America is known for freedom of religion, and many other freedoms.With these freedoms, there tends to be controversy within the different religious groups. The ability to accept each religious affiliation is next to impossible, but with education it will become less frequent than it has been. Educating Americans of the importance of religion in different cultures and why they came to the United States. There will be tragic events su ch as the 9/11 attacks, the Oklahoma City Bombing, Hurricane Katrina, Tsunamis, and more these events will bring out religious beliefs for those who are affected directly with these tragedies.We can choose to accept the differences or we can pass judgment I choose to accept the differences. References Bennett-Alexander, D Hartman, L (2009) Employment Law for Business sixth edition Fuller, Jon George (2012) Religious Diversity and Discrimination in the United States, retrieved kinfolk 2012, www. equaljusticeandlaw. wordpress. com Ginn, Janel (2007) Do Religious Groups in America Experience Discrimination? , New Religion and Spirituality Books for Youth, Pp 68 Booklist Marcum, T. Perry, S. 2010) Dressed for Success Can a aim if Religious Discrimination be Successful, Labor Law Journal Pp 184 Unknown Author, (2012) Discrimination, retrieved September 18, 2012, www. businessdictionary. com Unknown Author, (2012) Religious Discrimination, retrieved September 17, 2012 www. eeoc. gov Unk nown Author, (2012) Religious Discrimination at work, retrieved September 25, 2012, www. employment. findlaw. com Unknown Author, (2008) Two Federal District Courts Decide Religious Discrimination Cases Involving Police Officers, retrieved September 25, 2012, www. franczek. com

How Serious Were The Problems Facing Nicholas I at the Start of His Reign? Essay

Nicholas I faced a series of capers ranging in severity at the contract of his reign as Tsar, including the Decembrists conspiracy, the finish rebellion and the Russian economy.However the first problem of Nicholas reign was in fact the problem of who would become Tsar, himself of his brother Constantine. Since the antecedent Tsar, Alexander I, had had no children, the rightful heir was his brother Constantine, and next in line was his younger brother Nicholas. With news that Constantine had married and Polish Catholic and renounced his admit to the throne, Nicholas was to publish a manifesto declaring himself Tsar. But Milaroadovich, the Governor General of St Petersburg, reminded Nicholas of the custom of proclaiming the eldest living heir Tsar. With this advice given, Nicholas immovable to take it, as he knew that the Guards had previously played a part in the succession of many a Tsar. Therefore Nicholas proclaimed Constantine Tsar only for Constantine to do the same to N icholas. In the end, Constantine refused to displace to St Petersburg from Warsaw, and renounced his claim to the throne and thus proclaimed Nicholas I Tsar.The problem of the succession itself was not too over estimable but the fact that the Tsar and its plaque were in a state of flux had some serious repercussions. This gave more breathing space for the Decembrists to plan their assassination attempt on Nicholas. On 14th declination 1825, Nicholas was ready for the Oath of Allegiance ceremony. On that day Nicholas had been communicate of both the Northern company and the Southern Society by General Miloradovich. The general informed Nicholas that the Northern Societys activities were being monitored, which was true, and that they awardd no real threat, which was more debatable.There was definitely unease in the way Nicholas felt he should deal with the problem, he decided to go with Miloradovichs plans of accepting that he was safe from the Northern Society as he had been r eassured that they did not pose a significant threat. Nicholas was worried that if direct action had been used against the conspirators, it might provoke the revolt he sought to avoid. The problem of the Northern and Southern Society was made worse when a Tsar adviser Rostovstev chose to inform the Northern Society of his meeting with the Tsar of the society itself. The leak of information was a serious problem for the new Tsar, although Nicholas probably remained ignorant in the case of Rostovstev.However Rostovstev caused panic the Northern Society, which caused some officers to withdraw quietly but other others decided to go ahead with plan. Nearing the time of the allegiance ceremony, Miloradovich was shot by gathering rebels after trying to negotiate with them. Nicholas then took decisive action and crushed the Decembrist revolt with artillery fire. It was the conjuncture of the attempt on his life the assassination of his general and leak of information that made the Decembris t revolt a problem of the utmost severity to Nicholas. The innovation so early on in his reign made Nicholas I more reactionary and more suspicious of liberal ideas.Another problem, that faced the bulk of Tsar, but was of more prominence in the reign of Nicholas, was the problem of the Russian economy. Nicholas was keen on the idea of a railway system in Russia whereas his school principal economic Minister Kankrin was more conservative and felt that it would only encourage the spreading of western ideas and encourage people to travel around more. Another problem was the fact that Russian had fallen seriously behind Western Europe in terms of production, with England far more progressed than Russia could even think. This economic problem brought up the issue of the social system of Russia, and whether or not it was possible to flourish economically without the abolition of Serfdom which was seen as a huge hindrance to Russia mass and it development. This problem was a very seriou s one, as it needed incredible intellect to find a solution that protected the Tsars autocracy and serfdom and that still developed the Russian economy.Another problem at the start of Nicholas Is reign as the Polish Revolt of 1830 and 1831, a revolt that took place due to the spreading of revolutionary ideas from the like of France and Belgium. It was in November 1830 when the revolutionary ideas hit Poland and the Poles rose in revolt against their Russian overlords. Constantine, Nicholas brother, had failed to contain the home and the revolutionaries had the support of the Polish army.It was nine months until the revolution was suppressed, and the uprising cost many Russian lives, including Constantines who died of cholera. Nicholas thought it best to revoke the constitution and replace it with a much more restrictive statute. Universities at Warsaw and Vilna were closed and from then on until the death of Nicholas, Poland was ruled under martial law and the administration was p lace under greater Russian control. Nicholas aimed to russify Poland, and to impose Russian ways, institutions and beliefs and eradicate the local customs, institutions and beliefs.All in all, Nicholas I faced some very serious problems at the start of his reign in 1825, right from the day he was proclaimed Tsar. It was these incidents at the beginning of his reign such as the Decembrist Revolution and the Polish Revolt that made Nicholas a very reactionary Monarch in the later years of his reign.

The Risk Factor of Diageo

RISK FACTORS Investing in the securities offered using this prospectus involves risk. You should dig c arfully the risks described below, together with the risks described in the documents incorporated by reference into this prospectus and individually risk factors allow ind in the prospectus supplement, before you decide to buy our securities. If every of these risks actually get along, our business, monetary condition and results of operations could suffer, and the duty price and liquidity of the securities offered using this prospectus could decline, in which case you whitethorn lose all or part of your investing.Risks Relating to Diageos Business You should read Risk Factors in Diageos Annual get crossways on Form 20-F for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2008, which is incorporated by reference in this prospectus, or similar sections in subsequent filings incorporated by reference in this prospectus, for schooling on risks relating to Diageos business. Risks Relatin g to Diageos Shares Diageos shares and American depositary shares may experience volatility which forget negatively affect your investment. In recent years more or less major stock trades swallow experienced significant price and trading volume fluctuations.These fluctuations accept practically been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of the underlying companies. Accordingly, there could be significant fluctuations in the price of Diageos shares and American depositary shares, or ADSs, each representing four ordinary shares, even if Diageos operating results meet the expectations of the investment community. In addition, announcements by Diageo or its competitors relating to operating results, earnings, volume, acquisitions or joint ventures, capital commitments or spending, changes in fiscal estimates or investment recommendations by securities analysts, changes in market valuations of separate food or beverage companies, perverse economic perfor mance or recession in the joined States or Europe, or disruptions in trading on major stock markets, could cause the market price of Diageos shares and ADSs to fluctuate significantly. Risks Relating to the Debt Securities, Warrants, Purchase Contracts and Units Because Diageo is a dimension company and currently conducts its operations through subsidiaries, your regenerate to receive payments on debt securities thin outd by Diageo or on the guarantees is subordinated to the other liabilities of its subsidiaries.Diageo is organized as a holding company, and straightly all of its operations are carried on through subsidiaries. Diageo plc had guaranteed a total of ? 6,970 million of debt as of June 30, 2008. Diageos readiness to meet its financial obligations is beent upon the availableness of cash flows from its domestic and exotic subsidiaries and affiliated companies through dividends, intercompany advances, management fees and other payments. Diageos subsidiaries are not g uarantors of the debt securities we may offer. Moreover, these subsidiaries and affiliated ompanies are not required and may not be able to pay dividends to Diageo. Claims of the creditors of Diageos subsidiaries have priority as to the assets of such subsidiaries over the claims of Diageo. Consequently, in the exit of insolvency of Diageo, the claims of holders of notes guaranteed or issued by Diageo would be structurally subordinated to the prior claims of the creditors of subsidiaries of Diageo. 2 Table of Contents In addition, some of Diageos subsidiaries are subject to jurisprudences restricting the nitty-gritty of dividends they may pay.For example, subsidiaries of Diageo incorporated under the laws of England and Wales may be restricted by law in their ability to declare dividends due to failure to meet requirements tied to net asset levels or distributable profits. Because the debt securities are unbolted, your right to receive payments may be adversely affected. The debt securities that we are offering entrust be unsecured. The debt securities are not subordinated to any of our other debt obligations and therefore they will rank equally with all our other unsecured and unsubordinated indebtedness. As of June 30, 2008, Diageo group had ? 5 million aggregate principal amount of secured indebtedness outstanding. If Diageo Investment, Diageo crownwork, Diageo finance or Diageo heedlessness on the debt securities or Diageo defaults on the guarantees, or in the event of bankruptcy, liquidation or reorganization, then, to the extent that Diageo Investment, Diageo Capital, Diageo pay or Diageo have granted security over their assets, the assets that secure these debts will be used to gather the obligations under that secured debt before Diageo Investment, Diageo Capital, Diageo finance or Diageo could do work payment on the debt securities or the guarantees, respectively.If there is not enough collateral to satisfy the obligations of the secured debt , then the remaining amounts on the secured debt would share equally with all unsubordinated unsecured indebtedness. Your rights as a holder of debt securities may be inferior to the rights of holders of debt securities issued under a different serial publication pursuant to the indenture. The debt securities are governed by documents called indentures, which are described later under Description of Debt Securities and Guarantees. We may issue as many distinct series of debt securities under the indentures as we wish.We may also issue a series of debt securities under the indentures that provides holders with rights superior to the rights already granted or that may be granted in the future to holders of another series. You should read carefully the specific terms of any particular series of debt securities which will be contained in the prospectus supplement relating to such debt securities. Should Diageo, Diageo Capital or Diageo Finance default on its debt securities, or should Diageo default on the guarantees, your right to receive payments on such debt securities or guarantees may be adversely affected by applicable insolvency laws.Diageo plc is incorporated under the laws of England and Wales, Diageo Capital is incorporated under the laws of Scotland and Diageo Finance is incorporated under the laws of The Netherlands. Accordingly, insolvency proceedings with respect to Diageo or Diageo Capital are likely to proceed under, and be governed by, UK insolvency law and insolvency proceedings with respect to Diageo Finance are likely to proceed under, and be governed by, Dutch insolvency law.The adjectival and substantive provisions of such insolvency laws are generally more favorable to secured creditors than comparable provisions of United States law. These provisions afford debtors and unsecured creditors only limited protection from the claims of secured creditors and it will generally not be possible for Diageo, Diageo Capital or Diageo Finance or other unsecured creditors to prevent or jibe the secured creditors from enforcing their security to repay the debts due to them under the terms that such security was granted.The debt securities, warrants, purchase contracts and units lack a developed trading market, and such a market may never develop. Each of Diageo, Diageo Investment, Diageo Capital and Diageo Finance may issue debt securities in different series with different terms in amounts that are to be determined. Debt securities issued by Diageo, Diageo Capital or Diageo Finance may be listed on the New York Stock transfer or another 3 Table of Contents recognized stock transform and we expect that debt securities issued by Diageo Investment will not be listed on any stock exchange.However, there can be no assurance that an active trading market will develop for any series of debt securities of Diageo, Diageo Capital or Diageo Finance even if we list the series on a securities exchange. Similarly, there can be no assurance that an active trading market will develop for any warrants issued by Diageo. thither can also be no assurance regarding the ability of holders of our debt securities, warrants, purchase contracts and units to sell their debt securities, warrants, purchase contracts or units or the price at which such holders may be able to sell their debt securities, warrants, purchase contracts or units.If a trading market were to develop, the debt securities, warrants, purchase contracts and units could trade at prices that may be higher or lower than the initial offering price and, in the case of debt securities, this may result in a return that is greater or less than the interest rate on the debt security, in each case depending on many factors, including, among other things, prevailing interest judge, Diageos financial results, any decline in Diageos credit-worthiness and the market for similar securities.Any underwriters, broker-dealers or agents that participate in the distribution of the debt securities, warrants, purchase contracts or units may make a market in the debt securities, warrants, purchase contracts or units as permitted by applicable laws and regulations but will have no obligation to do so, and any such market- qualification activities may be discontinued at any time. Therefore, there can be no assurance as to the liquidity of any trading market for the debt securities, warrants, purchase contracts and units or that an active public market for the debt securities, warrants, purchase contracts or units will develop. ecumenical Information regarding international up-to-dateness Risks This prospectus does not describe all the risks of an investment in debt securities denominated in a currency other than U. S. dollars. You should consult your financial and level-headed advisors as to any specific risks entailed by an investment in debt securities that are denominated or payable in, or the payment of which is linked to the value of, foreign currency. The se debt securities are not appropriate investments for investors who are not sophisticated in foreign currency transactions.The entropy set forth in this prospectus is directed to prospective purchasers who are United States residents. We disclaim any responsibility to advise prospective purchasers who are residents of countries other than the United States of any matters arising under foreign law that may affect the purchase of or holding of, or receipt of payments on, the debt securities. These persons should consult their own legal and financial advisors concerning these matters. Exchange Rates and Exchange Controls May come to the Debt Securities Value or ReturnDebt securities Involving Foreign Currencies Are Subject to General Exchange Rate and Exchange Control Risks . An investment in a debt security that is denominated or payable in, or the payment of which is linked to the value of, currencies other than U. S. dollars entails significant risks. These risks include the cas ualty of significant changes in grade of exchange between the U. S. dollar and the relevant foreign currencies and the possibility of the imposition or modification of exchange controls by either the U. S. or foreign governments. These risks generally depend on economic and political events over which we have no control.Exchange Rates Will Affect Your Investment. In recent years, judge of exchange between U. S. dollars and some foreign currencies have been highly quicksilver(a) and this volatility may continue in the future. Fluctuations in any particular exchange rate that have occurred in the past are not necessarily indicative, however, of fluctuations that may occur during the term of any debt security. depreciation against the U. S. dollar of the currency in which a debt security is payable would result in a fall down in the effective yield of the debt security below its coupon rate and could result in an boilersuit loss to you on a U.S. dollar basis. In addition, dependin g on the specific terms of a currency-linked debt security, 4 Table of Contents changes in exchange rates relating to any of the relevant currencies could result in a decrease in its effective yield and in your loss of all or a substantial portion of the value of that debt security. We Have No Control Over Exchange Rates. Foreign exchange rates can either float or be fixed by sovereign governments. Exchange rates of most economically developed nations are permitted to fluctuate in value relative to the U. S. dollar and to each other.However, from time to time governments may use a variety of techniques, such as intervention by a countrys central bank or the imposition of regulatory controls or taxes, to influence the exchange rates of their currencies. Governments may also issue a new currency to replace an existing currency or alter the exchange rate or relative exchange characteristics by a devaluation or critical review of a currency. These governmental actions could change or i nterfere with currency valuations and currency fluctuations that would otherwise occur in response o economic forces, as well as in response to the movement of currencies across borders. As a consequence, these government actions could adversely affect the U. S. dollar-equivalent yields or payouts for (a) debt securities denominated or payable in currencies other than U. S. dollars and (b) currency-linked debt securities. We will not make any adjustment or change in the terms of the debt securities in the event that exchange rates should become fixed, or in the event of any devaluation or review or imposition of exchange or other regulatory controls or taxes, or in the event of other developments affecting the U.S. dollar or any applicable foreign currency. You will watch those risks. whatever Foreign Currencies May Become Unavailable. Governments have imposed from time to time, and may in the future impose, exchange controls that could also affect the availability of a specified foreign currency. Even if there are no actual exchange controls, it is possible that the applicable currency for any debt security not denominated in U. S. dollars would not be available when payments on that debt security are due. Alternative recompense Method Used if Payment Currency Becomes Unavailable.If a payment currency is unavailable, we would make required payments in U. S. dollars on the basis of the market exchange rate. However, if the applicable currency for any debt security is not available because the euro has been substituted for that currency, we would make the payments in euro. The mechanisms for making payments in these alternative currencies are explained in Description of Debt Securities and GuaranteesAdditional MechanicsUnavailability of Foreign Currency below. We Will Provide Currency Exchange Information in Prospectus Supplements.The applicable prospectus supplement will include information regarding current applicable exchange controls, if any, and histor ic exchange rate information for any debt security denominated or payable in a foreign currency or requiring payments that are related to the value of a foreign currency. That information will be furnished only for information purposes. You should not assume that any historic information concerning currency exchange rates will be representative of the range of or trends in fluctuations in currency exchange rates that may occur in the future.Currency Conversions May Affect Payments on Some Debt securities The applicable prospectus supplement may provide for (1) payments on a non-U. S. dollar denominated debt security to be made in U. S. dollars or (2) payments on a U. S. dollar denominated debt security to be made in a currency other than U. S. dollars. In these cases, The Bank of New York Mellon, in its capacity as exchange rate agent, or a different exchange rate agent identified in the prospectus supplement, will convert the currencies. You will bear the costs of conversion throug h deductions from those payments. 5

The Comparison Between Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theory

The Comparison betwixt Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theory on that point are very distinct differences between Psychodynamic and Humanistic instruction only when both ultimately unfold the help and guidance to discover why we act the way we do and why we make authorized choices in our lives. throughout this essay, I will endeavour to explain those major differences and you will see that disrespect these completely different methods of therapy, depending on what the problem maybe, they potentiometer both work very effectively in their own way. Carl Rogers, born in 1902, was the originator of the Person Centred Approach or Humanistic Theory.His work was influenced by his experience of universe a client and a counseling (Casemore, 2006) and he believed a trusting descent was essential in helping the client to grow and develop in order that they could cope with difficulties in a more effective manner and to function more effectively. There is a strong furiousness of the ca ll for for counsellors to think of their clients as great cover up rather than imsomebodyal bodies. Characteristics cardinal for effectiveness in the counsellor/client relationship are congruence, where the counsellor must be genuinely themselves, a complete and upstanding soul.Empathic, which is the ability to understand and appreciate the clients perspective. To live in their world and accept who they are planely and unconditional positive regard which involves accepting the client completely and in a non-judgemental way. Rogers believed that solely worlds birth a natural desire for personal growth and potential so that they raft take duty for their own actions and the way they live their lives. This view is c exclusivelyed the Actualising Tendency. He believed that everybody had an inner need to wholeness.The self-concept is also important in Person Centred commission. This relates to the individuals perception or the way in which they see themselves base on life expe riences and attitudes from those important tidy sum around them when they were young. Abraham Maslow is another theorist whose contribution to the Person Centred Approach is very significant. He proposed a hierarchy of necessarily which he believed were responsible for human motivation and drive. They are as follows Physiological postulate These are biological involve.They consist of inevitably for oxygen, food, and water. They are the strongest needs because if a person were deprived of entirely needs, the physiological ones would come first in the persons search for satisfaction. Safety Needs When all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling thoughts and behaviors, the needs for security can constrain active. Needs of Love, Affection and Belongingness When the needs for safety and for physiological well-being are satisfied, the next class of needs for love, affection and breakingness can emerge.Needs for Esteem When the first ternary classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can become dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem a person gets from others. Needs for Self-Actualization When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for self-actualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a persons need to be and do that which the person was born to do. According to Maslow it is possible for people to work towards self-actualisation by practising behaviours which encourage the development of confidence and openness.These include trying new experiences and to challenge oneself, to assume responsibility, assay to be honest and to develop a capacity to trust onself, Both Maslow and Rogers had very similar views. Maslow believed that the well-nigh staple fiber drive was to become the person that one is capable of becoming and Rogers believed that the basic drive was to become the person that one truly is. Gestalt Therapy is a psychotherapy, based on the experiential ideal of here and now, and relationships with others and the world, and was co-founded by Fritz Perls, Laura Perls and Paul Goodman in the 1940s-1950s (Wikipidia 2004).Perls did not belive in a single particular surmise. He thought you should forever and a day just go with the flow and work with what you have and what is fortuity in the now. He placed not bad(p) importance on the client becoming self aware and thus developed the Gestalt theory. This therapy focuses more on process (what is happening) than content (what is being discussed). The accent is on what is being done, thought and felt at the here and now rather than on what was, might be, could be, or should be.Perls believed in minipulating the client, bringing them out of their comfort zone and thought-provoking them. To own what you say and do and to be aware of unconscious(p)(p) actions/ countersigns. In the 1950s Eric Berne began to develop his theories of Transactional Analysis. He s aid that verbal communication, particularly face to face, is at the centre of human social relationships and psychoanalysis. His starting-point was that when two people encounter each other, one of them will speak to the other. This he called the Transaction Stimulus.The response from the other person he called the Transaction Response. The person aerateing the Stimulus is called the Agent. The person who responds is called the Respondent. Transactional Analysis became the method of examining the transaction wherein I do something to you, and you do something back. Berne also said that each person is made up of three alter ego presents Parent This is our ingrained voice of authority, absorbed conditioning, learning and attitudes from when we were young. Child Our internal reaction and feelings to external events form the Child.This is the seeing, hearing, feeling, and emotional body of data within each of us. When anger or desperation dominates reason, the Child is in control. Adult Our Adult is our ability to think and determine action for ourselves, based on true data. The adult in us begins to form at around ten months old, and is the means by which we limit our Parent and Child under control. If we are to change our Parent or Child we must do so through our adult. Transactional Analysis is effectively a language within a language a language of true significance, feeling and motive.It can help you in every situation, firstly through being able to understand more clearly what is going on, and secondly, by virtue of this knowledge, we give ourselves choices of what ego states to adopt, which signals to send, and where to send them. This enables us to make the most of all our communications and therefore create, develop and save better relationships (Businessballs. com) sounding at the Psychodynamic side, Freud took the view that human beings are never free from their behaviours, thoughts and feelings.That we are governed by past events and reinact them in our present. Sigmund Freud is the father of the Psychodynamic Theory. This focuses on the unconscious aspects of reputation. According to Freud the human mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden in the unconscious. He believed that the conscious level of the mind was similar to the tip of the iceberg which could be seen, but the unconscious was mysterious and was hidden. The unconscious also consists of aspects of personality of which a person is unaware. The conscious on the other dedicate is that which is within our awareness.The preconscious consists of that which is not in immediate awareness but is easily accessible (Himmat Rana 1997) Freud believed the personality is made up of three parts. They are Id the oldest part and present from birth and necessary for survival. The Ego existent awareness of self and of the world. Has evolved through contact with the external world and is determined by the individuals own experiences. Acts as mediator between the id and the superego and the Superego parental and social influences. Moral judgement and conscience.Main function is to curb he demands of the id. When anxiousness occurs, the mind first responds by an increase in problem-solving thinking, seeking rational ways of escaping the situation. If this is not fruitful, a range of defence mechanisms may be triggered. In Freuds language, these are tactics which the Ego develops to help deal with the Id and the Super Ego. Freuds Defence Mechanisms include Denial cl designing/believing that what is true to be actually false. Displacement redirecting emotions to a substitute target. Intellectualization taking an objective viewpoint. Projection attributing uncomfortable feelings to others. Rationalization creating false but presumable justifications. Reaction Formation over playing in the opposite way to the fear. Regression going back to acting as a child. Repression pushing uncomfortable thoughts into the subconscious. Sublimation redirecting wro ng urges into socially acceptable actions. Carl Jung was an associate of Freud who disagreed on a bout of issues and finally broke away from Freud with his own ideas.He developed Analytical Psychology and it consists of the following The collective unconscious This is the deepest part of the psyche which contains all experiences that are inherited. The Personal Unconscious This is material that was once conscious but has become forgotton or suppressed. Jung referred to the universal ideas and images of the collective unconscious as archetypes. These are original forms which all human beings in all societies recognise. Archetypes can also appear in shared emotional experience and these unconscious ideas and patterns of thought are likely to surface during momentous events such as birth and death.This shared psychological experience was regarded by Jung as evidence of a collective unconscious. There are four major archetypes of the collective unconscious The word persona means a ma sk and refers to the outward appearance which people use in everyday life. The word anima refers to the unconscious female quality in the male and the word animus refers to the unconscious male quality in the female. The shadow is the inferior being within us which is primitive and animal. It is also the personal unconscious is similar to Freuds concept of the id.The term self describes a state of complete integration of all the separate elements of personality (Hough 1994) Alfred Adler broke away from Freuds school and set up his own called individual psychology. He believed that personality developed through sibling order and placed emphasis on the social development of man. He viewed people as mostly conscious rather than unconscious. For Adler, it was ineffectual to focus on drives and impulses without giving attention to how the person creatively directs the drives. Adler believed that inferiority feelings are the source of all human striving.All individual progress, growth an d development result from the attempt to compensate for ones inferiorities. Feeling unattractive, or dont belong somewhere. Not strong enough or smart enough. So everyone is trying to overcome something that is hampering them from becoming what they motive to become. The meaning of superiority is like self-realization. The striving for perfections is innate in the sense that it is a part of life. Throughout a persons life, Adler believed, he or she is motivated by the need to overcome the sense of inferiority and strive for ever higher levels of development.Everything Adler says ties into the lifestyle. For Adler, meanings are not determined by situation, but we are self-determined by the meaning we attribute to a situation. Melanie Klein had a significant impact on child psychology and contemporary psychoanalysis. She was a leading innovator in theorizing object relations theory. According to Klein, the infants world was threatened from the beginning by intolerable anxieties, whos e source she believed to be the infants own death instinct.These persecutory anxieties, which were felt in the infants own bodily needs as well as from the external frustrations to those needs, were overwhelming to the infant, and in order to combat them the infant resorted to defenses whose aim was to isolate her from them. Through these primitive defensesprojection, denial, splitting, withdrawal, and omnipotent control of these objectsthe infant put threatening, bad objects, outside herself and into the external world simultaneously, she preserved the good objects, both within herself and externally, by splitting them off from their malevolent counterparts.Perhaps the most fundamental of these processes were projection and introjection, which described the infants first, primitive attempts to differentiate himself from the world, inside from outside, self from other, based on the epitome of oral incorporation (and spitting out) and the infants relation to his first, nurturing/fru strating object, the mothers breast. In Bowlbys approach, the child is considered to have a need for a secure relationship with adult caregivers, without which normal social and emotional development will not occur.However, different relationship experiences can lead to different developmental outcomes. A number of attachment styles in infants with distinct characteristics have been identified known as secure attachment, avoidant attachment, anxious attachment and disorganized attachment. These can be measured in both infants and adults adhesiveness is an affectional tie that one person forms between him/herself and another specific one (usually the parent) a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time.Attachment theory states that attachment is a developmental process based on the evolved adaptive tendency for young children to maintain proximity to a familiar person, called the attachment figure. Four different attachment styles have been identified in children s ecure, anxious-ambivalent, anxious-avoidant, and disorganized. Secure Attachment The child protests the mothers departure and quiets promptly on the mothers reverberation, accepting comfort from her and returning to exploration.Avoidant Attachment The child shows little to no signs of distress at the mothers departure, a willingness to explore the toys, and little to no conspicuous response to the mothers return. Ambivalent Attachment The child shows sadness on the mothers departure, ability to be picked up by the stranger and even warm to the stranger, and on the mothers return, some ambivalence, signs of anger, reluctance to warm to her and return to play. Disorganized Attachment The child presents stereotypes upon the mothers return after separation, such as freezing for several seconds or rocking.This appears to indicate the childs lack of coherent contend strategy. Children who are classified as disorganized are also given a classification as secure, ambivalent or avoida nt based on their overall reunion behavior. The main differences between the two therapies are that the Psychodynamic Theory centres on the past experiences of the client. By using dream interpretation, free association and others, it concentrates on facial expression at childhood experiences and normal or abnormal development. Humanistic is based on the clients interpretation of what is happening in the here and now.It allows the client to express himself without having to look in the past. (Wiki. answers. com) Rogers believed that the counselling relationship was based on mutuality, in which both the client and the counsellor are of equal importance whereas in Psychodynamic Counselling the Counsellor is regarded as the expert. Bibliography Person Centred Counselling by Roger Casemore, 2006, Sage Publications A Practical Approach to Counselling by Margaret Hough, 1994, Pittman Publishing Sigmund Freud by Himmat Rana 1997 www. Wikipedia/Fritz_Perls Businessballs. com

Beka Lamb Essay

Beka beloved is the daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Lamb. She is an only child who lives with her parents in Belize. Beka is tall and slim built. She is 14 years of age and is a truly active and enterprising individual. Beka possesses very admirable qualities that are befitting of emulation. She demonstrates a whiz of responsibility and maturity for an individual of such a tender age. One notices the suppuration and development of Bekas character as the novel progresses. Initially, her alliance with her parents , particularly her father is somewhat strained, simply there is a notable improvement as the plot develops.Beka displays qualities of love, commiseration and warmth for her mother , and there exists a bond of understanding between them. Of particular note, is Bekas relationship with her friend ,Toycie. At the stolon of the novel, Beka is mourning her friends death, and eventually, one is informed as to why she is so profoundly bear on by her friends death . Beka exhibits qualities of endurance and determination when she is confronted with repugn situations.Beka also displays a sense of naivete and innocence when she has to deal with apparently, insurmountable tasks. The author , Zee Edgill , presents her heroine Beka Lamb in demanding yet honour situations. Indeed, Beka is truly a character worthy of emulation and praise. Beka Lamb is the daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Lamb. She is an only child who lives with her parents in Belize. Beka is tall and slim built. She is fourteen years of age and is a very active and enterprising individual. Beka possesses very admirable qualities that are worthy of emulation.She demonstrates a sense of responsibility and maturity for an individual of such a tender age. One notices the growth and development of Bekas character as the novel progresses. Initially, her relationship with her parents , especially her father is somewhat strained, but there is a notable improvement as the plot develops. Beka displays qualities o f love, compassion and warmth for her mother , and there exists a bond of understanding between them. Of particular note, is Bekas relationship with her friend ,Toycie.At the beginning of the novel, Beka is mourning her friends death, and eventually, one is informed as to why she is so profoundly affected by her friends death . Beka exhibits qualities of endurance and determination when she is confronted with challenging situations. Beka also displays a sense of naivete and innocence when she has to deal with apparently, insurmountable tasks. The author , Zee Edgill , presents her heroine Beka Lamb in demanding yet rewarding situations. Indeed, Beka is truly a character worthy of emulation and praise.

Oedipus Rex Cosmic Trial

Caitlin Lacy AP English lit 11/12/12 Persuasive Essay Everything happens for a rea intelligence. You were born for a reason, at that places a reason you got an F on your math quiz. Everything happens for a reason. Most of the clipping the reason for something corky happening might not be very clear to you, exactly its there. Everything that happens to you happens because it all leads up to your ultimate flock, you stomacht change your fate because for mavin, you probably dont know what it is, but if you happened to know, everything you do to prevent it will eventually lead up to it.Think back to why you got an F on your math quiz, you didnt study at all. So, you get your quiz back and your teacher asks you to stay afterward class, after her lecture you walk out of class late and you bump into a guy, long recital short, hes your soul mate and fifteen years later youre happily married. recollect if you had studied. It was fate, you werent supposed to study. No angiotensin-co nverting enzyme is to blame for Laiuss death, not even Oedipus, it was fate, and fate heapt be avoided.Before reading the play, were already aw be of Oedipuss story. We know what his ultimate fate is, so we know what that all of Oedipuss actions conduct up to his ultimate fate. One of the first clues we are given is in addition one of the biggest clues proving that fate cant be changed. King Laius didnt scratch off Oedipus himself, he ordered the shepherd to do it for him. There was no way for Laius to know whether the shepherd would buck the infant or not because he wasnt present.Naturally, the shepherd didnt vote d throw Oedipus because Oedipus was just an infant, and a person with a heart probably wouldnt kill an infant just because, the shepherd wherefore proceeded to give Oedipus to a messenger who past took the baby to Corinth where Oedipus was adopted by the king and queen. This leads to some other clue, which is the event that Oedipus was raised to believe that the king and queen of Corinth were his biological parents. Had he known they were his adoptive parents he nearly likely wouldnt have gone to the oracle to Apollo at Delphi.The very fact that he went to captivate the oracle is just another example of fate prevailing. Once Oedipus learned his fate he left(a) Corinth because he obviously didnt want the prophecy to come true. Fate is the strongest theme in the story, another reason why fate is to blame for King Laiuss death. He had to be killed by his son no matter what every single action in the play shows that. From the very beginning there was a way approximately this terrible fate, but Laius lost the chance when he ordered psyche else to do his dirty work for him.Also, Oedipus was a baby at the time so he had no control over what was happening to him, and it would also be ridiculous for Oedipus to be blamed for his gives death, because he was articled to fulfill this prophecy from before he was even born. If there was no prophecy , and Oedipus had killed his father, then he could be blamed, but there is too much evidence suggesting otherwise. From the way everything plays out you can see that fate is the cause of the whole ordeal. The minute Oedipus found out what he was destined for, he fled Corinth, because, as mentioned before, he believed that his adoptive parents were his biological parents.If you found out that you were destined for something as terrible was what Oedipus was destined for, youd probably leave home too. No one who is sane wants to marry their mother and kill their father, Oedipus found out and tried to prevent this from happening, one might argue that his efforts to prevent his fate led to his fate, which is true, but he had no way of knowing that among the men he killed in the road that one of them was his father, and that the wo spell he married was his mother. Now my curse on the murderer.Whoever he is, a lone man unknown in his crime or one among many, let that man drag out his sust enance in agony, step by painful step- Oedipus, 280-283. Although this quote is extremely ironic, it shows that Oedipus has no predilection he killed his father, and also that he believes that the act was wrong, and that the murderer needs to be punished. We also know that Oedipus murdered his father and his fathers men at a triple crossroad, there were two other roads for Oedipus to derive after killing the men, but for some reason, fate, it happened to be the road that led to Thebes.Fate, once again. Oedipus, once again, had no way of knowing that he had chosen the path to Thebes, it was just supposed to be that way. At the time of Oedipuss arrival in Thebes, there was a sphinx keeping people out of the city, anyone who guessed the sphinxs fathom incorrectly was devoured. Also, Oedipus had already fulfilled half of the prophecy, which meant that he was going to answer the riddle correctly because he had to get to Thebes to be able to wed Jocasta.Because Oedipus saved Thebes, an d because the king was mysteriously murdered, it was custom for Oedipus to marry the leave queen, it had always been that way and there was no reason for Oedipus to reject her, he had no idea that he was about to marry and have kids with his mother. By this time, the prophecy was then fulfilled, and no one had any idea about it. The prophecy ended here. There wasnt anything anyone could do anymore. Many years passed and Oedipus came to be one of the greatest kings Thebes had ever seen.Until the city of Thebes fell under a terrible plague, and everything Oedipus knew went downhill from there. When Oedipus was informed that determination Laiuss murderer would help bring happiness back to Thebes, he was set on it, because he was a good king. OEDIPUS From whom of these our townsmen, and what house? ?SHEPHERD Forbear for Gods sake, master, ask no more. ?OEDIPUS If I must marvel thee again, thourt lost. (1164-1167) This exchange between Oedipus and the shepherd shows that Oedipus will stop at nothing to save his people and realize the murderer.It wasnt fate that led Oedipus to the truth, it was his own determination. He was completely blind to the truth, but when he count on out that all the clues pointed to him, he did something that most people wouldnt do, he punished himself, he unploughed his word that Laiuss murderer would suffer, and Laiuss murderer did suffer indeed. He begged Creon to exile him he gouged his own eyes out. Oedipus might be the one to blame for uncovering the truth, but he definitely isnt the one to blame for killing Laius, it was set in stone for him, and there was no way around that.

300 †Rationalism vs Empiricism †Summary and History Essay

What is reality re whollyy corresponding? A current running through much of the philosophical look ating close to the clip of Socrates and Plato was that in that respect is a difference between how the world appears and how it is. Our senses reveal unriv all in alled layer of reality but it is our top dogs that chatter deeper. The world of appearances is a world in flux but underneath there essential be a stable reality. For there is much that is unchanging. We recognise kinds of things badgers, daffodils, mountains and whilst members of these kinds atomic number 18 born, change and die, and differ from one other in ever so many ways, the kind-defining essence doesnt change.We shape here the key positivist idea that knowledge is a priori knowledge of necessary truths Plato said that kinds were defined by the transcendental forms. He presented a number of arguments for the existence of these things. Prior to our incarnation, our souls existed in the realm of forms wher e we learned just about these essences. In our unremarkable state, we can non recall what we know. Socrates considered himself a midwife to knowledge alternatively of a teacher, helping his interlocutors to draw out what they arrogatet know that they know.The example of Meno and the slave-boy shows this idea clearly. Like many philosophers, Plato was also fascinated by mathematics. We are able to tap into a universe of truths that are non-sensible we do not see numbers and we do not see the perfect geometric forms. Once again, we see the difference between the powers of the learning ability and the powers of the senses. It was in the 17th century that the debate between the rationalists and the empiricists came to a head. Philosophers such(prenominal) as Descartes and Leibniz emphasised the power of source ein truthwhere the senses.Descartes argued that our senses were fallible and that we could not rule out the possibility of the demon deception hypothesis on the basis of rece ptive evidence alone. Descartes argued that he knew he existed, as a mind, on the basis of rebuke alone when I think, I cannot fail to be aware of myself as existing as that nous (cogito, ergo sum). Having proved that he exists, Descartes argued that God exists. Since God is no deceiver, he would not present aban dod us senses that systematically mislead. besides let us not overemphasise the powers of the senses.Descartes argued that even with material things, it is rationalness that exposes their essences. In his piece of wax reasoning, he argued that the senses merely reveal a succession of impressions it is reason that grasps the inherent and enduring substance as extended (and filled space). Plato and Descartes believed that we are born with concepts and knowledge. In Descartes case, there was a religious motive we are all born in the image of God. We gripe more about the world primarily through metaphysical reflection. The philosopher Francis Bacon, an early empiricist, famously dismissed this rationalist approach to knowledge.He compared rationalists to spiders who spin complex metaphysical systems out of their entrails. Empiricists get their hands dirty like bees concourse pollen, they gather knowledge about the world and only thusly reflect on it. Around the identical eon as Bacon, many new discoveries were being made that shook the prevailing views of reality. The Earth was dethroned from its location at the centre of the universe by Copernicus. A new star (a supernova) was observed by Tycho Brahe in 1572 yet the heavens were supposed to be timeless and unchanging.Galileo discovered the moons of Jupiter again, everything clearly didnt revolve around the Earth. Later in the 17th century, scientist-philosophers such as Newton, Boyle, Gassendi and Huygens would rotationise our understanding of reality. The original empiricist manifesto was scripted by John Locke. In his Es take Concerning Human Understanding, he sought to show how a mind th at was blank at birth a tabula rasa or blank slate could come to be filled. His root targets were the innate concepts and knowledge (ideas) of the rationalists.There are no such things. There are no truths everyone agrees on. numerous people fail to grasp the supposed metaphysical truths. Instead, our senses deliver ideas to us. We store them, abstract from them to form global ideas, and compound and mix them to generate new ideas. Like Lego bricks, we build the meagre sensory data into ever more complex structures. Even Leibniz thought Locke was onto something here. He claimed that our minds were like blocks of marble that had to be carefully chiselled at to reveal the hidden structure (the innate truths).It is hard work and not everyone will end up well-chiselled. Hume took empiricism to its limit. Where Locke talked indifferently of ideas, Hume distinguished impressions and ideas. Impressions are the direct deliverances of the senses and are forceful and vivid in semblance to ideas, which are the copies our minds makes. (He also agreed with the Empiricist Berkeley that Lockes theory of normal ideas was wrong. We do not abstract from particular ideas to a worldwide idea but use a particular idea in a general way via a general name. )What about the precious necessary truths philosophy is supposed to understand? Locke argued that once we have ideas in our mind, our mind will perceive the necessary connections between them e. g. that a triangle has internal angles that add to 180o? But where does the idea of necessity come from? Hume provided an answer. He distinguished statements into two categories those expressing dealings of ideas (analytic) and those expressing matters of fact ( synthetical). The analytic truths express mere definitions we simply are aware of an association between terms.The synthetic truths are the contingent truths. So what happens to interesting necessary truths, such as God exists or vigor exists without being caused to e xist? Hume argued that if these werent analytic and they arent they arent necessary. We feel that they are necessary and this is all necessity is a psychological property. When we say that X caused Y, we think we have said something about the universe. We think we have seen an example of a faithfulness of nature (e. g. the water in the bucket froze because it was cold exemplifies the law water freezes at 0oC).Science investigates these laws. Hume said that causation was all in the mind. We see one thing after another and when weve seen instances of a regularity enough, we develop the feeling that one thing must be followed by the other. Hume, like Locke, emphasised how all we can be certain of are our impressions how the world seems. Scientists are rightfully investigating how the world appears they can never be certain that the world unfeignedly is the way it appears. So, empiricism seems to lead straight to scepticism about the external world. Kant objected strongly to this .Science really is reporting the external world and there really is an external world for it to investigate. Kant brought about a revolution in philosophy (he called it a Copernican revolution). He argued that the empiricists and rationalists were both right and wrong. The Empiricists were right science requires the study of the world and the world is brought to us via the senses. The Rationalists were right our mind is not blank but contains structures that enable us to interpret the stream of data from the senses. We may liken the mind to a mould and the data to gel one only has something structured by combining both.Or the mind is a information processing system with an operate system and the data is the input from the user. A computer with just an operating system is inert. A computer into which data is inputted but which has no operating system is just data it cannot be interpreted. Only when you deepen both do you get something useful. Our minds contain the structures for space, time, objects and causation, for example. (In Kants terminology, space and time are the pure forms of information whereas the structures for objects and causation are pure concepts of the understanding.) This means that we experience a world of spatio-temporally located objects in which causation happens because this is how our minds make it appear. Does this mean that the world as such is all in the mind? Or is the mind somehow tuned to the structure of reality, so that our pre-programmed minds mirror the structures of reality? This is a very difficult question over which there is no agreement amongst experts. The Empiricist movement came back with a vengeance in the 20th century. Philosophers such as Bertrand Russell agreed with Hume that our knowledge begins with our knowledge of sense-data (classical empirical foundationalism).Armed with new discoveries in mathematics and logic, and O.K. by the successes of science, the logical positivists argued that the only proper w ay to investigate the world was the scientific way. If I say p and p is synthetic and there is no objective, scientific way to verify my claim that p, then my claim is meaningless. (This is the celebrated verification principle). So, if it is true that there atoms, we should be able to comment empirical sensory evidence of them. If it is true that nothing happens without being caused to happen, then we likewise need scientific evidence for this.We cannot discover whether it is true by pure reason. The Logical Positivist movement failed. There is much that seems meaningful that is not objectively verifiable by the senses, such as the occurrence of private sensations. The principle makes it impossible for general claims such as all mammals are warm-blooded to be true, as we cannot verify all of them. The very verification principle itself fails its own test The Logical Positivists responded by watering down their principle a meaningful claim is one we could gather some evidence for in principle and the principle itself is limited exempt from this rule.But it was not enough. (* Then Quine argued that the thoroughgoing division between analytic and synthetic sentences was incorrect. uninflected sentences cannot be false. But no sentence enjoys this privilege. As we learn more and more, truths we thought were beyond mistrust are rejected. Once upon a time, we would have thought it analytic that no object can be in two places at once or that there is no fastest velocity. Quantum physics and general relativity theory show that they are not true. Instead, we should have a web of belief. At the centre are those sentences least likely to be revised our core beliefs.As we move out, we find those sentences that would be easier and easier to accept as false that would cause less and less disruption to the rest of what we believe. ) In the 1950s, Chomsky became famous for suggesting that we are not born as blank slates when it comes to language. We are born knowin g the fundamental structures of human language. When we are young, we hear our mother tongue and use our knowledge of language to pick up our language very quickly. (At 24 months, the average child understands 500-700 linguistic process at 36 months, 1000 at 48 around 2500-3000 at 60 around 5000 words thats around 7 words a day between 3 and 6).More recently, studies have shown that children are born with brains structured to prognosticate the world to behave in certain way. Very young children expect objects to persist over time not to disappear and reappear at two different places, for example. Is this a revival of rationalism? non according to many people. Rationalists argued that we had innate concepts and knowledge. By reflection, we can discover them and manipulate them to gain new knowledge. But our knowledge of language is altogether different. None of us can easily articulate the rules we follow in generating syntactically-correct English.(And certainly none of us at all can articulate the common structure rules to all human languages. ) Our brains are certainly pre-programmed, but only perhaps in the same way that a computer is pre-wired clearly something has to be there but nothing as advanced as software. So where are we today? No side is victorious this would be to grossly over-simplify the debate between the empiricists and the rationalists. We in spades have minds in some way ready to receive the world hardly surprising, perhaps, given the time it has taken for us to evolve.But when it comes to working out what is true? Few philosophers are rationalists in the old-hat(predicate) way. There is no sharp division between metaphysics and science our study of reality cannot be done from the armchair alone. But our capacity to grasp abstract mathematical truths has always been difficult to explain from an empiricist perspective. We seem to have an access to a mathematical realm and a cognitive or intuitive access instead of a sensory one. You can t see numbers, after all, and it is not easy to say what we could see that would lead us to generate the ideas of numbers.